Karl Marx and Human Nature Essay Example

Karl Marx and Human Nature Essay I have taken for my overview one part from the book Marx and human instinct by Norman Geras. In the second section Norman Geras exchanges with the human instinct and authentic philistinism. Albeit numerous Marxists precluded Marx’s hypothesis from securing human instinct that there was a human instinct to be found in Marx’s words. there is in truth a Marxist build of human instinct which remains. to some review. constant since the beginning and across cultural limits. The 6th of the Theses on Feuerbach gave the rudimentss to this perusing of Marx fitting to which there was not a single ever-enduring human instinct in sight in his plants. Feuerbach settle the part of confidence into the portion of grown-up male human instinct. Be that as it may, the bit of grown-up male is no deliberation innate in every unique individual. In world. it is the gathering of the cultural dealingss. Feuerbach. who does non come in upon a horrible judgment of this existent part. is in this way obliged: Human nature Thus. Marx seems to express that human instinct is close to what is made by the cultural dealingss. Norman Geras’ Marx’s Theory of Human Nature. all things considered. offers an exceptionally detailed explanation against this spot. In lineation. Geras shows that. while the cultural dealingss are held to discover the idea of individuals. they are non the solitary such determiner. Actually. Marx offers expressions where he explicitly alludes to a human instinct which is more than what is adapted by the fortunes of one’s life. In Capital. in a footer evaluating utilitarianism. he says that utilitarian’s must think with human instinct as a rule. thus with human instinct as adjusted in each chronicled period. Marx is thinking against a theoretical develop of human instinct. offering then again a history established in exotic life. We will compose a custom exposition test on Karl Marx and Human Nature explicitly for you for just $16.38 $13.9/page Request now We will compose a custom paper test on Karl Marx and Human Nature explicitly for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Recruit Writer We will compose a custom paper test on Karl Marx and Human Nature explicitly for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Recruit Writer While he is somewhat communicated that people express their life. so they are. Subsequently what people are relies upon the material states of their creation. he other than accepts that human instinct will condition ( against the foundation of the beneficial powers and dealingss of creation ) the way where people express their life. History includes a continuous transmutation of human instinct. despite the fact that this does non plan that each aspect of human instinct is completely factor ; what is changed need non be totally changed. Marx knocked the tendency to change into imperishable Torahs of nature and of ground. the cultural signifiers hopping from your current way of creation and signifier of possessions. a system once in a while called hypostatization. For this ground. he would likely hold needed to thump certain features of certain chronicles of human instinct. Human presences mutually take a shot at nature however do non make a similar work ; there is a division of work where individuals non only do various occupations. be that as it may, blending to Marxist hypothesis. a few people live from crafted by others by having the office of creation. How this is finished relies upon the sort of society. Creation is brought out through extremely unequivocal dealingss between individuals. Furthermore, in twist. these creation dealingss are controlled by the degree and character of the beneficial powers that are available at some random clasp ever. For Marx. profitable powers allude to the offices of creation, for example, the devices. instruments. designing. land. common stuffs. what's more, human perception and capacities in footings of using these offices of creation. Human instinct. Marx’s moral thought and offense Gears says of Marx’s work that: Whatever else it is. hypothesis and socio-verifiable record. furthermore, logical as it might be. that work is an ethical prosecution laying on the develop of basic human requests. a moral perspective. as it were. in which a place of human instinct is included. Estrangement. for Marx. is the estrangement of universes from features of their human instinct. Since †as we have seen †human instinct comprises in an unconventional arrangement of basic pushes and tendencies. whose practicing comprises blasting ; antagonism is a status wherein these pushes and tendencies are hindered. For key forces. estrangement substitutes debilitation for doing one’s ain life one’s item. one’s life going an object of capital. Marx accepts that irritation will be a trait of all general public before socialism. The antonym of. estrangement is realization or self-movement the action of the personality. constrained by and for the inner self. Human instinct and the broadening of the gainful powers It has been held by a few creators that it is Marx’s develop of human instinct which clarifies the supremacy thesis’ refering the expansion of the profitable powers. which orchestrating to Marx. is itself the cardinal drive power of history. Assuming valid. this would do his history of human instinct potentially the most cardinal feature of his work. Geras composes. recorded philistinism itself. this entire normal assault to society that starts with Marx. rests bluntly upon the idea of a human instinct. It features that particular connection of cosmopolitan requests and limits which clarifies the human gainful methodology and man’s sorted out transmutation of the stuff condition ; which strategy and transmutation it treats in twist as the balance both of the cultural request and of chronicled modification. The tendency’s freedom is just its independency of cultural development. its rootedness in cardinal stuff realities of human instinct and the human situation. Verifiable headway comprises essentially in the developing of people’s capacities to decide and order the universe about them. This is the most essential way wherein they create and express their human part. Recorded philistinism Historical philistinism began from a cardinal verifiable in universe of individual: that all together for human presences to keep going and continue being from coevals to coevals. it is fundamental for them to deliver and imitate the stuff requests of life. Marx so expanded this premiss by asseverating the significance of the way that. so as to ship out creation and trade. individuals need to come in into extremely positive cultural dealingss. most essentially creation dealingss. Norman Geras broke down chronicled philistinism and hypothesized that society has traveled through a figure of types or habits of creation. That is. the character of the creation dealingss is dictated by the character of the gainful powers ; these could be the straightforward apparatuses and instruments of early person. or on the other hand the more evolved apparatus and building of present age. The main habits of creation Marx distinguished all things considered incorporate unrefined socialism or innate society ( an ancient stage ) . antiquated society. primitive framework. what's more, industrialist economy. In every one of these cultural stages. individuals cooperate with nature and deliver their life in various manners. Any overabundance from that creation is designated in various manners. Antiquated society depended on an overseeing class of slave owners and a classification of slaves ; primitive framework depended on landholders and helot ; and industrialist economy dependent on the entrepreneur class and the hands on classification. The entrepreneur class in private claims the organization of creation. dissemination and trade ( e. g. . factories. mines. stores and Bankss ) while the hands on classification unrecorded by exchanging their mingled work with the apitalist class for remunerations. Marx recognized the creation dealingss of society ( beginning on the balance of given beneficial powers ) as the monetary base of society. He other than clarified that on the establishment of the financial base their emerge certain political foundations. Torahs. imposts. development. and so forth . what's more, musings. methods of thought. profound quality. and so forth. These comprised the political/ideological superstructure of society. This superstructure non only has its start in the monetary base. be that as it may, its attributes other than at last compare to the character and advancement of that financial base. I. . the way individuals arrange society is controlled by the financial base and the dealingss that emerge from its way of creation. Verifiable philistinism can be believed to lay on the undermentioned principles: 1. The balance of human culture is the means by which people chip away at nature to deliver the organizations of resource. 2. There is a division of work into cultural classes ( dealingss of creation ) dependent on possessions proprietorship where a few people live from the work of others. 3. The arrangement of classification division is subject to the way of creation. 4. The way of creation depends on the level of the profitable powers. 5. Society moves from stage to introduce when the prevailing classification is supplanted by another developing classification. by undermining the political shell that upholds the old dealingss of creation done coordinating to the new beneficial powers. This takes topographic point in the superstructure of society. the political circle in the signifier of insurgency. whereby the lower class frees the beneficial powers with new dealingss of creation. what's more, cultural dealingss. coordinating to it. Human instinct and authentic philistinism Marx’s hypothesis of history endeavors to portray the way in which universes change their surroundings and ( in rationalistic connection ) their surroundings adjust them each piece great. That isn't just do the equitable conditions change in the demonstration of generation. e. g. the modest community bec

Family and True Feelings

Much of the time, it is regularly demonstrated that so as to maintain a strategic distance from issues, for example, demise, individuals decide to keep their gatekeeper up as opposed to opening up to each other. Demise is a theme that is generally kept implicit of when one isn't prepared for another to pass. Individuals, families particularly, will in general stay silent or set up a front empowering one from communicating their actual sentiments on the issue. There is battle between allowing our sentiments to feelings, and having the option to go about as a solid figure is frequently appeared in writing, for example, poetry.In her sonnet, â€Å"Legacies,† Nikki Giovanni shows how families decide to make the subject of death a â€Å"touchy† subject, rather than being open about it, which is appeared through her characters, the grandma and the granddaughter. In â€Å"Legacies,† Nikki Giovanni shows the battle that the grandma and the granddaughter suffer when the s ubject of death is raised. This battle can be raised when custom is being passed down. Regardless of whether the individual needs to acknowledge it or not, the convention is being passed down on the grounds that demise is in the future.The grandma needs the granddaughter to figure out how to make moves, which is a long running family custom. The grandma, attempting to dodge the conspicuous explanation, doesn't clarify why the granddaughter would need to figure out how to make the rolls. Rather than connecting with her granddaughter, the grandma gets over it and says, â€Å"Lord these kids. † in light of the grandmas proclamation about creation the rolls, the granddaughter says that she doesn't need become familiar with the convention

How to Embarrass Yourself on Purpose

How to Embarrass Yourself on Purpose Social Anxiety Disorder Coping Print How to Embarrass Yourself on Purpose By Arlin Cuncic Arlin Cuncic, MA, is the author of Therapy in Focus: What to Expect from CBT for Social Anxiety Disorder and 7 Weeks to Reduce Anxiety. Learn about our editorial policy Arlin Cuncic Updated on July 21, 2019 Social Anxiety Disorder Overview Symptoms & Diagnosis Causes Treatment Living With In Children Fuse/Getty Images Have you ever considered that it might be a good idea to embarrass yourself on purpose? This practice, also known as constructive embarrassment, is similar to carrying out exposures in cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT).   The idea is that by doing things that you find embarrassing on purpose, you will learn that you can handle your feelings in those situations. How to Start The steps to complete this exercise are quite simple, although the act of carrying them out may feel uncomfortable before you begin: Choose a situation in which to practice.Get into the right frame of mind.Complete the action that you find embarrassing. Though this process is not easy, it is worth doing to change the way you perceive situations. When you embarrass yourself you do the opposite of what you probably do on a daily basis. This is a mind shift that will help you to stop thinking about situations in such black and white terms. You might find that you end up not even feeling embarrassed or that others do not even really take notice of what you are doing. You wont know until you try. When you practice these tasks, be sure to have a positive and open frame of mind. Smile, laugh at yourself and relax. Perhaps easier said than done, but with time it will come naturally. Even better, practice these exercises with others who are socially anxious. Make it a group effort, somewhat like what might take place in outings during group therapy. Things to Start Doing If You Have Social Anxiety Disorder Potential Ways to Embarrass Yourself Below is a list of potential items for your constructive embarrassment list. There are of course many items that you could add that would be more specific to your fears. As with exposures, choose the easier ones to do first and build up to the harder ones. You might feel that doing some of these things is a waste of your time and the time of those around you. Thats okay. Remember that your goal is not to gain something from doing the actual task but to seek out that feeling of embarrassment and be okay with it happening. Pretend to have a coughing fit.Wear a fancy dress to a casual occasion.Draw a terrible sketch and ask people what they think.Send somebody the wrong type of greeting card for an occasion.Pretend to forget your phone number when someone asks.Wear your shoes on the wrong feet.Sit in the wrong seat on an airplane.Ask where the garbage is in a restaurant when you are standing beside it.Call up a restaurant and ask to order food that they dont serve.Walk into a movie after it has already started.Pay for an item with the wrong currency.Do a cartwheel in the park.Pretend to trip.Call someone by the wrong name.Ask a telemarketer if you can call him back.Try to buy movie tickets for a movie that isnt playing.Spill your drink in a fancy restaurant.On an elevator, turn and face everyone instead of looking forward.Leave the house with food on your face.If you are a student, ask the question in class that you are afraid to ask because you might look dumb.Parallel park when you know you are holdin g up traffic.Take a really long time at the ATM and talk to yourself.Take an embarrassing item to the checkout without a price tag.Go to a restaurant on your birthday where you know they will sing to you. Tell them it is your birthday.Skip down the street instead of walking.Blank out during a speech on purpose.Make your hands shake on purpose when you sign something.Order a messy meal like spaghetti on a date. A Word From Verywell While these tasks may seem insurmountable at first, over time you might notice that your fear of the worst happening is lessened. Actively seeking embarrassment can be quite liberating if youve spent your life avoiding it. However, if you try and fail to complete any of these tasks, it could be that your anxiety is still too severe. Consider speaking to your doctor about options to get your anxiety under control. The Best Treatments for Social Anxiety Disorder

Individuality and Self-Worth Feminist Accomplishment in Jane Eyre

Whether or not Charlotte Brontà «Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s Jane Eyre is a feminist work has been widely debated among critics for decades. Some argue that the novel speaks more about religion and romance than it does of female empowerment; however, this is not a wholly accurate judgment. The work can, in fact, be read as a feminist piece from beginning to end.   The main character, Jane, asserts herself from the first pages as an independent woman (girl), unwilling to rely on or relent to any outside force. Though a child when the novel starts, Jane follows her own intuition and instinct rather than submitting to the oppressive statutes of her family and educators. Later, when Jane becomes a young woman and is faced with overbearing male influences, she again asserts her individuality by demanding to live according to her own necessity. In the end, and most importantly, Brontà « stresses the significance of choice to the feminist identity when she allows Jane to go back to Rochester. Jane eventually chooses to marry the man she once left, and chooses to live out the remainder of her life in seclusion; these choices, and the terms of that seclusion, are what prove Jane’s feminism. Early on, Jane is recognizable as someone atypical to the young ladies of the nineteenth century. Immediately in the first chapter, Jane’s aunt, Mrs. Reed, describes Jane as a â€Å"caviller,† stating that â€Å"there is something truly forbidding in a child taking up her elders in [such a] manner.† A young woman questioning or speaking out of turn to an elder is shocking, especially one in Jane’s situation, where she is essentially a guest in her aunt’s house. Yet, Jane never regrets her attitude; in fact, she further questions the motives of others while in solitude, when she has been put off from questioning them in person. For instance, when she has been scolded for her actions toward her cousin John, after he provokes her, she is sent away to the red room and, rather than reflecting on how her actions could be considered unladylike or severe, she thinks to herself: â€Å"I had to stem a rapid rush of retrospective thought before I quailed to the dismal present.†Ã‚   Also, she later thinks, â€Å"[r]esolve . . . instigated some strange expedient to achieve escape from insupportable oppression – as running away, or, . . . letting myself die† (Chapter 1). Neither actions, having to suppress backlash or considering flight, would have been considered possible in a young lady, especially a child of no means who is in the â€Å"kind† care of a relative.   Furthermore, even as a child, Jane considers herself an equal to all around her. Bessie brings this to her attention, condemning it, when she says, â€Å"you ought not to think yourself on an equality with the Misses Reed and Master Reed† (Chapter 1). However, when Jane asserts herself in a â€Å"more frank and fearless† action than she had ever before displayed, Bessie is actually pleased (38). At that point, Bessie tells Jane that she is scolded because she is â€Å"a queer, frightened, shy, little thing† who must â€Å"be bolder† (39).   Thus, from the very start of the novel, Jane Eyre is presented as a curious girl, outspoken and conscious of the need to improve her situation in life, though it is required of her by society to simply acquiesce. Jane’s individuality and feminine strength is again demonstrated at the Lowood Institution for girls. She does her best to convince her only friend, Helen Burns, to stand up for herself. Helen, representing the acceptable female character of the time, waves Jane’s ideas aside, instructing her that she, Jane, need only study the Bible more, and be more compliant to those of a higher social status than she. When Helen says, â€Å"it would be your duty to bear [being flogged], if you could not avoid it: it is weak and silly to say you cannot bear what it is your fate to be required to bear,† Jane is appalled, which foreshadows and demonstrates that her character will not be â€Å"fated† to subservience (Chapter 6).   Another example of Jane’s courage and individualism is shown when Brocklehurst makes false claims about her and forces her to sit in shame before all her teachers and classmates. Jane bears it, then tells the truth to Miss Temple rather than hold her tongue as would be expected of a child and student. Finally, at the end of her stay at Lowood, after Jane has been a teacher there for two years, she takes it upon herself to find a job, to better her situation, crying, â€Å"I [desire] liberty; for liberty I [gasp]; for liberty I [utter] a prayer† (Chapter 10). She does not ask for any man’s assistance, nor does she allow the school to find a place for her. This self-sufficient act seems natural to Jane’s character; however, it would not be thought of as natural for a woman of the time, as demonstrated by Jane’s need to keep her plan secret from the masters of the school. At this point, Jane’s individuality has advanced from the eager, rash outbursts of her childhood. She has learned to keep true to herself and her ideals while maintaining a level of sophistication and piety, thus creating a more positive notion of feminine individuality than was displayed in her youth.    The next obstacles for Jane’s feminist individuality come in the form of two male suitors, Rochester and St John. In Rochester, Jane finds her true love, and had she been any less of a feminist person, any less demanding of her equality in all relationships, she would have married him when he first asked. However, when Jane realizes that Rochester is already married, though his first wife is insane and essentially irrelevant, she immediately flees from the situation. Unlike the stereotypical female character of the time, who might be expected to care only about being a good wife and servant to her husband, Jane stands firm: â€Å"Whenever I marry, I am resolved my husband shall not be a rival, but a foil to me. I will suffer no competitor near the throne; I shall exact an undivided homage† (Chapter 17).   When she is asked again to be married, this time by St John, her cousin, she again intends to accept. Yet, she discovers that he, too, would be choosing her second, this time not to another wife, but to his missionary calling. She ponders his proposal for a long time before concluding, â€Å"If I join St. John, I abandon half myself.† Jane then decides that she cannot go to India unless she â€Å"may go free† (Chapter 34). These musings pronounce an ideal that a woman’s interest in marriage should be just as equal as her husband’s, and that her interests must be treated with just as much respect. At the end of the novel, Jane returns to Rochester, her true love, and takes residence in the private Ferndean. Some critics argue that both the marriage to Rochester and the acceptance of a life withdrawn from the world overturn all efforts made on Jane’s part to assert her individuality and independence. It should be noted, however, that Jane only goes back to Rochester when the obstacles which create inequality between the two have been eliminated. The death of Rochester’s first wife allows Jane to be the first and only female priority in his life. It also allows for the marriage that Jane feels she deserves, a marriage of equals. Indeed, the balance has even shifted in Jane’s favor at the end, due to her inheritance and Rochester’s loss of estate. Jane tells Rochester, â€Å"I am independent, as well as rich: I am my own mistress,† and relates that, if he will not have her, she can build her own home and he may visit her when he wishes (Chapter 37). Thus, she becomes empowered and an otherwise impossible equality is established.   Further, the seclusion in which Jane finds herself is not a burden to her; rather, it is a pleasure. Throughout her life, Jane has been forced into seclusion, whether by her Aunt Reed, Brocklehurst and the girls, or the small town that shunned her when she had nothing. Yet, Jane never despaired in her seclusion. At Lowood, for example, she said, â€Å"I stood lonely enough: but to that feeling of isolation I was accustomed; it did not oppress me much† (Chapter 5). Indeed, Jane finds at the end of her tale exactly what she had been looking for, a place to be herself, without scrutiny, and with a man whom she equaled and could therefore love. All of this is accomplished due to her strength of character, her individuality. Charlotte Brontà «Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s Jane Eyre can certainly be read as a feminist novel. Jane is a woman coming into her own, choosing her own path and finding her own destiny, without stipulation. Brontà « gives Jane all that she needs to succeed: a strong sense of self, intelligence, determination and, finally, wealth. The impediments that Jane encounters along the way, such as her suffocating aunt, the three male oppressors (Brocklehurst, St. John, and Rochester), and her destitution, are met head-on, and overcome. In the end, Jane is the only character allowed real choice. She is the woman, built up from nothing, who gains all she wants in life, little though it seems. In Jane, Brontà « successfully created a feminist character who broke barriers in social standards, but who did it so subtly that critics can still debate whether or not it happened.         References Bronte, Charlotte.  Jane Eyre (1847). New York: New American Library, 1997.

A Thousand Splendid Sunsâ€Discussion Questions

A Thousand Splendid Suns by Khaled Hosseini is superbly written, has a page-turning story, and will help your book club learn more about Afghanistan. Use these book club discussion questions to probe deeper into the story. Spoiler Warning: These book club discussion questions reveal important details from the novel. Finish the book before reading on! Discussion Questions What did A Thousand Splendid Suns teach you about the history of Afghanistan? Did anything surprise you?Mariam’s mother says: Women like us. We endure. It’s all we have. In what ways is this true? How do Mariam and Laila endure? How is their endurance different from the ways their mothers faced their trials?Several times Mariam passes herself off as Lailas mother. In what way is their relationship like mother-daughter? How did their own relationships with their mothers shape how they treated each other and their family?What is the significance of Lailas childhood trip to see the giant stone Buddhas above the Bamiyan Valley? Why did her father take her on this trip? How did his influence shape the way Laila would cope with her future?Afghanistan changes rulers several times in the story. During the Soviet occupation, the people felt life would be better once the foreigners were defeated. Why do you think the quality of life deteriorated after the occupation rather than r eturning to the way it was in the pre-communist era?When the Taliban first enter the city, Laila does not believe women will tolerate being forced out of jobs and treated with such indignity. Why do the educated women of Kabul endure such treatment? Why are the Taliban accepted?The Taliban forbid writing books, watching films, and painting pictures; yet the film Titanic becomes a sensation on the black market. Why would people risk the Taliban’s violence to watch the film? Why do you think this particular film became so popular? How does Hosseini use films throughout the novel to symbolize relationships between people and the state of the country (i.e. Jalils theater, Tariq Lailas outings to the movies)?Were you surprised when Tariq returned? Had you suspected the depth of Rasheeds deceit?Why does Mariam refuse to call witnesses at her trial? Why didnt she try to escape with Laila and Tariq? Do you think Mariam made the right decision? Even though her life was hard, Mariam w ishes for more of it in the end. Why do you think that is?Do you think Laila and Tariq can be happy?Afghanistan is still in the news a lot. Do you think the situation will truly improve there?Rate A Thousand Splendid Suns on a scale of 1 to 5.

Is It Education †Education in Hong Kong Free Essays

Education is of utmost importance as it makes a great impact on a person’s whole life. In Finland, kids at the age of 6 or earlier do not have to go to schools, but learn at home through playing games and interacting with people. The teachers there accompany the same group of students for a long time owing to the 9-year compulsory educational system. We will write a custom essay sample on Is It Education – Education in Hong Kong or any similar topic only for you Order Now In Hong Kong, however, ‘education’ seems to have lost its meaning and the educational system is still problematic despite several modifications. The first and major problem is being too examination-oriented. This can be explained by the popularity of tutorial schools. Those ‘super tutors’ focus on helping students acquire a satisfied result in the examination. Many students seek help from them since whether they can further their studies mainly depends on their academic results. Another piece of evidence can be found on our textbooks. Many of them include a particular section merely for the examinations, such as ‘exam tips’, ‘exam skills’ or ‘exam practice’. This also reflects the phenomenon of examination- orientation. Setting academic results as the major criterion of school entry has twisted people’s receptions of education. The existing educational system puts much emphasis on students’ academic performance and neglects the significance of developing other aspects, including moral cultivation, life education and other abilities like interpersonal skills. As a result, people seem to have forgotten what the aims of education actually are. Apart from this problem, some social issues have arisen from Hong Gong’s ‘education’. One of them is the problem of impoverishment, especially the intergenerational poverty and youth poverty. The former one becomes more severe hen the educational system does not allow poor students to get rid of it via education. The latter one can be resulted when the tuition fees of universities are so high that some students have to grant loans from the government and repay them even when they have been working for years. Hong Kong government has spent many resources on education, though, there are still a multitude of problems that the government has to solve. Not only has it become too exam-orientated, but it also deepens some social problems. What the society wants is a real and comprehensive education which allows students to fully utilize their abilities. How to cite Is It Education – Education in Hong Kong, Papers

Financial Accounting Plant and Equipment

Question: Discuss about the Financial Accountingfor Plant and Equipment. Answer: Introduction: The present paper expects to explain about the estimation of property, plant and equipment (PPE) at either revaluation model or cost. The reason behind the revaluation of fixed assets is to present in the books "the fair market value" of the fixed assets. This might give the companies a chance of putting assets into different sectors. As pointed out by Hu, Percy and Yao (2015), fair value is the sum anticipated from the offer of a benefit or paid in moving a liability in an arranged transaction between the members in the market at the date of estimation. The non-current assets could be devalued, depleted or amortized. Be that as it may, the amounts of non-current resources are limited on the balance sheet, which result in loss recognition. Factors: The accompanying aspects are vital for an Australian company to consider at the time of revaluing its advantages: Firm Characteristics: The Australian populace is joined firmly to the conviction of work and social peace. At the time, the Aussie government officials question any contention situation that may bring about reprisals in the forthcoming races; they actualize measures to guarantee social peace. The force of political cost is related with firm size as controls and other enactment mediations as happenstance expenses. The perceivability of the enormous firms is more prominent in connection to existing riches, which could draw the consideration of the chose delegates focusing more on the benefit level. Because of this, the administrators of enormous associations may apply upward revaluations for limiting the profits on resources and value alongside the capital additions from resource deal to diminish political expenses. Foreign Partners' needs and Data Asymmetry: Because of the confined size of the Australian securities exchange, the recorded associations have expanded their business operations on the abroad budgetary markets. In this way, an Australian firm required in worldwide exercises needs to convey data to both the residential and outside partners. The outside partners need to change the money related reports into neighbourhood monetary forms; be that as it may, they need in significant learning and aptitude. Along these lines, the Australian associations have a motivating force in enhancing their money related quality through minimisation of data asymmetry. For this situation, the administrators of the Australian firms need to lead upward revaluation for finishing this goal. Audit Fees: It has been watched that the revaluation of assets would bring about more prominent costs identified with contracts. For example, the auditors dedicate more prominent measure of time in evaluating the detailed figures and talking about the same with the chiefs. The revaluation of fixed assets is reliant on the judgment of the auditors, which may prompt bias. The unscrupulous CFOs and CEOs are likely to utilize fair value accounting to the endeavors for control of net profit. The AASB 116 states that PPE has been hard to order as opposed to properties of investment. With a specific end goal to revalue the PPEs, the gathered devaluation should be foreseen and it should be subtracted from the re-esteemed sum at the assessment date. Consequently, the audit fees are firmly connected with the benefit revaluation strategy. Financial portfolio: At the point when a company measures its assets at the revaluation model, it should be updated quickly before being arranged as held available to be sales (Hu, Percy and Yao, 2015). The effect of such treatment is that the cost of sales would be put in the income statement when the asset is arranged as held available to be purchased. Examples: Two Companies Listed on ASX The two recorded ASX associations that gauge their PPEs with both cost and fair value constitute of Woolworths Limited and Telstra Corporation. Telstra Corporation: The PPEs of Telstra constitute of structures, communication assets and other plant and equipment. At the time of settling the deferred cash considerations, the future payable sum is marked down to existing value discounted on the acquisition date and it is perceived as finance expenses. Moreover, it applies straight-line strategy over the economic existence of the assets. Since Telstra works as both lesser and renter, the estimation of rented property is perceived at lower of the fair asset value or "fair value of least lease payments" if there should be an occurrence of the last mentioned (Telstra.com.au, 2017). If there should arise an occurrence of the previous, it perceives a lease receivable by the existing value of unassured remaining worth assessed after the lease term end. Then again, it has measured alternate PPEs in measured cost strategy, as there has been no adjustment in the value since the acquisition date. Woolworths Limited: If there should arise an occurrence of Woolworths Limited, the PPEs involve development properties, freehold land, lease improvements and other plant and equipment. It has been gathered that Woolworths has decided on cost basis in recording its PPE. The PPE carrying amount of the company less accumulated depreciation has remained at $10,062.10 million in 2016 (Woolworthsgroup.com.au, 2017). Regardless of such data reliability, this figure neglects to portray the financial sum anticipated that would be gathered from the sale of assets. For offering users more accurate data, Woolworths has conducted assessments for finding out the fair value identified with its PPE. It has recorded an impairment loss of $203.10 million related with "significant items of continuing with operations" and $1,431.80 million related with discontinued operations. The assets having a place with the last category have been considered for sale. This indicates the recoverable sum is lower contrasted with the carr ying amount. Such disclosure has delivered the users with reliable data about the total assets of the property. Conclusion: From the above explanation, it has been found that the main considerations required for asset revaluation incorporate firm attributes, data asymmetry, audit fees, foreign stakeholders needs and financial portfolio. The two companies recorded in ASX that utilization both fair value and cost in asset revaluation are Woolworths Limited and Telstra Corporation. This is primarily used to convey the users with relevant data about the actual estimation of the property. References: Hanlon, D., Navissi, F., Soepriyanto, G. (2014). The value relevance of deferred tax attributed to asset revaluations.Journal of Contemporary Accounting Economics,10(2), 87-99. Hu, F., Percy, M., Yao, D. (2015). Asset revaluations and earnings management: Evidence from Australian companies.Corporate Ownership and Control,13(1), 930-939. Telstra.com.au. (2017). Retrieved 14 April 2017, from https://www.telstra.com.au/content/dam/tcom/about-us/investors/pdf-e/2016-Annual-Report.pdf Woolworthsgroup.com.au. (2017). Retrieved 14 April 2017, from https://www.woolworthsgroup.com.au/icms_docs/185865_annual-report-2016.pdf

The Bismarck free essay sample

The interpretation of Bismarck continued to change throughout the 1930s and 40s as a result of Nazism and the collapse of the Third Reich, the interpretations shifted, and throughout the 1960s, 70s and 80s the interpretation of Bismarck has become more balanced, not significantly influenced by political desires, whilst still influenced by social context. Through the study of historical debate focussing between the 1880s and 1980s, the changing interpretations of Bismarck can be illuminated and assessed. Historiographical debate of Bismarck’s impact upon Germany began almost immediately following his rise to prominence, as the primary initial historiography within Germany demanded a â€Å"strong man†[1], â€Å"who would cut the Gordian knot of nationalistic aspirations†. [2] Thus, German historians and the public throughout the 1850s and 1860s desired Bismarck to be portrayed as a benefactor to the German society; however Bismarck was also criticised as being detrimental to the development of Germany. The differing interpretations of Bismarck throughout the 1980s were â€Å"between the kleindeutsche and gro? eutshe historians†. We will write a custom essay sample on The Bismarck or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page [3] As the kleindeutsche historians argued that the unification was a â€Å"natural birth†, the gro? deutshe viewed it as a â€Å"caesarean section†. [4] The kleindeutshe school of though was largely composed of nationalist historians Heinrich von Sybel and Treitschke. Treitschke argued that the subjection of Germany was an inevitable price of unification[5], countering Mommsen’s critique arguing that â€Å"the injury done by the Bismarckian era is infinitely greater than its benefits†¦the subjugation of the German spirit was a misfortune which cannot be undone†. 6] The nationalist-liberal interpretation of Bismarck was reflected significantly in the publications of the late 19th Century historians as for these historians, â€Å"Bismarck became the man with the masterplan†[7], and thus following the unification in 1871 â€Å"there was a feeling of fulfilment amongst historians†¦the status quo had to be supported†. [8] The impact of the historian’s context is clearly shown as â€Å"early biographies by German historians also show us the extent to which the political Zeitgeist made them distort the picture of Bismarck†. 9] The sources available to the historians of the 1880s and 1890s also influenced their interpretation of Bismarck as â€Å"the documents were chosen by Bismarck himself†[10], which has been clearly shown to have impacted upon the writings of the German nationalist historian, Sybel, as Sybel’s writings were checked by Bismarck prior to publication. [11] Thus, as a result of the impact of sources and context, Sybel portrayed Bismarck as a good servant who did his duty to his nation. 12] The writings of the late 19th Century, 1871 to the early 20th Century 1910 were significantly influenced by the nationalist-liberal interpretation of the time and context. The German defeat in the First World War, in 1918 was expected to have created a revision in German historiography however, this was not the case[13], as the failures of WWI were averted and blamed on others through the â€Å"Stab in the back† ideology, the Bismarck myth did not become tainted. The roots of the myth of Bismarck were planted throughout the 1920s as â€Å"German historians of the twenties and thirties were driven by the idea of giving their countrymen an unchallengeable hero in Bismarck†. [14] The struggles of the German nation following the defeat in WWI and the social and political revolution resulted in Germany needing Bismarck â€Å"to provide courage and orientation†, and thus the manufactured interpretation of Bismarck was one of guidance and success. 15] Publications throughout this time were limited; however the ability to understand Bismarck’s impact was extensively amplified as â€Å"new documents were released from the foreign office archives†. [16] Thus as a result of the flourish of foreign policy research, the 1920 interpretation of Bismarck’s foreign policy portrayed it as â€Å"an example of modesty and wisdom†. [17] The writings of Emil Ludwig, Geschichte eines Kampfers in 1928 substantiates this roma ntic and savour view of Bismarck, as â€Å"Bismarck’s life is portrayed as an ancient Greek drama with a Faustian hero†. [18] The historiography surrounding Bismarck was significantly altered following the collapse of the Weimar Republic and the subsequent rise of the Nazis, as the Nazi regime constantly utilised Bismarck to justify themselves. They â€Å"found willing executioners in historians like Marcks to interpret their value-system in Bismarckian terms†. [19] The Nazis manipulated Bismarck and Bismarck’s historical legacy to benefit them as â€Å"on the ‘Day of Potsdam’, where he (Hitler) glowingly praised his predecessor’s work which had, in his view, started the ‘ascent’ of the German people†. 20] Hitler aimed at creating links with Bismarck to justify his expansionary foreign policy, such as the Anschluss in 1938, and to gain credit and popularity through association with Bismarck. The influence of the rise of Nazism upon historiography is highlighted by Wilhelm Mommsen, originally a Republican[21], as he wrote Politische Geschichte von Bismarc k bis zur Gegenwart 1850 – 1933, (1935), linking Bismarck to Hitler. Mommsen argued that â€Å"the first generation fulfilled the yearnings of the Germans and built the empire under Bismarck’s guidance,†¦. he second ossified†¦and the third grew up in the war and built a country that, though connected with Bismarck’s creation, also outgrew it in many ways†. [22] Mommsen argued for the Third Reich to have completed the structural complexities of society and industry that Bismarck had created. The writings of Bismarck became linked to Hitler as a result of the context in which historians wrote, firstly in one of persecution and censorship, however, German historians were not opponents of Hitler, and thus manipulated the history of Bismarck to benefit the Nazi Regime, of which they favoured. 23] Following the collapse of the Third Reich after the Second World War in 1945, â€Å"Bismarck, the creator of the nation, was bound to be seen differentlyâ € . [24] Friedrich Meinecke argued that historians should adopt entirely new perspectives regarding Germany’s past, â€Å"the staggering course of the First, and still more the Second World War no longer permits the question to be ignored whether the seeds of later evil were not already present in the Bismarckian Reich†. 25] Whilst there was a negative assessment of Bismarck’s role in the path of atrocities, German historians also â€Å"preferred to hark back to Bismarck’s greatness to show up the depth of failure among his successors†. [26] Due to the actions of Hitler and the Nazi state, the role of Bismarck was investigated as to how far he enabled the dictatorial powers and influenced the structures of war, which were experienced throughout Europe and as substantiated by Hans Hallmann, â€Å"the question for German historians after the Second World War was, therefore: how should one write about Bismarck after Hitler? [27] The criticism was largely influenced by the context of which the historians were writing in, as the collapse of the Reich signalled a supposed failure in Bismarck, and questioned his success intentions, as â€Å"criticism of Bismarck centred rather unrealistically on the problem of deciding whether a German nation-state or a German-dominated Central Europe should have been created†[28]. A. J. P. Taylor’s, Bismarck: the man and the statesman written in 1955, typified post war historical thought, questioning the role of Bismarck in the collapse of democracy. Taylor contrasted the critical nature of Bismarck arguing for the general success of Bismarck. Taylor’s British context allowed him to keep â€Å"a healthy distance from the Bismarck myth†, which resulted in the influencing of many German historians[29], and thus enabled perspective. He argued for the understanding of Bismarck as a manipulator, due to his ability to avert problematic confrontations, as â€Å"on such occasions one can see not only Bismarck’s great intellectual gifts, but a manipulative emotional intelligence†. 30] Taylor utilised psychoanalysis of Bismarck to explain the factors impacting upon his policies, and as argued by Urbach was â€Å"especially effective in describing Bismarck’s youth†. [31] Through utilising a differing methodology of historical examination, Taylor received and portrayed a differing perspective of Bismarck and Bismarck’s role in Germany, portraying Bismarck as â€Å"a man who wanted peace for h is country and helped to give Europe such peace for forty years†[32], whilst the majority of his countrymen would associate Bismarck with ‘iron, three wars and as the predecessor of Hitler’†. 33] The â€Å"revival of respect and even veneration for Bismarck†[34] was countered significantly in the â€Å"passionately partisan criticism of Bismarck’s work†[35], Bismarck and German Empire (1963) of Erich Eyck. Eyck was typically a liberal historian, and thus opposed Bismarck, from â€Å"the standpoint of iustitia fundamentum regnorum†, arguing that justice should be the major foundation of governance, as Eyck wrote â€Å"in the tradition of the great liberal opponents of Bismarck†[36]. Eyck argues that Bismarck was the â€Å"hero of violent genius†[37], through his 3 volume biography of which is greatly influenced by his liberal standpoint and historical context of persecution by Hitler, and his background as a lawyer as he â€Å"despised Bismarck’s lack of respect for the rule of law†. [38] Eyck continually criticised Bismarck’s detrimental impact upon liberalism within Germany and â€Å"passionately condemned Bismarck’s cynicism towards liberal, democratic and humanitarian ideals†[39], which he states to have â€Å"incapacitated the people†. 40][41] Bismarck and German Empire influenced the historiography of the Bismarckian topic among German and international historians, presenting â€Å"an interpretation neoconservative in nature†. [42] This criticism of Bismarck has influenced the German historian, Hans Rothfels, whom followed Eyck, arguing that â€Å"Eyck’s belief in a ‘liberal optionâ€⠄¢ for a united Germany was not justified, that no one but Bismarck could have united Germany†. [43] Fritz Fischer’s Germanys Aims in the First World War (1968) signalled the â€Å"first significant German historian to blame Germany for starting the war†[44]. Fritz Fischer’s publication significantly demonized Bismarck and Bismarck’s Germany, arguing for the path that Bismarck had essentially led the path to the German cause of the First World War. Fischer’s writings and interpretation of Bismarck largely contradicted the mainstream views of Bismarck and Bismarck’s Germany, and as substantiated by Feuchtwanger, â€Å"It contradicted much of the work done in Germany on the war guilt question and caused great controversy†[45]. The controversial nature of Fischer’s publication resulted however in a flow of reassessments of his original publications, still maintaining the criticism of Bismarck and resulting in a â€Å"massive attack on Bismarck’s creation†. [46] The flow of secondary publications created a Fischer school of historical thought, which â€Å"stood on the political left and its opponents on the political right†[47]. Through the publication of Fritz Fischer’s Germanys Aims in the First World War, the German historian utilized â€Å"political, economic, social and cultural evidence†[48], to persuade and research, thus creating a revision of historiography. The debate between Fischer and the right created significant disruption within the history fraternity, as â€Å"The left, who believed in critical social history, felt cheated because†¦the historical establishment strongly resisted their new and much more critical view of German history†. 49] The Fischer school of historical thought was extensively revised in the 1980s, of which Bruce Waller refers to as the ‘conservative 1980s’[50]. Edgar Feuchtwanger claims, â€Å"Revisionism provokes further revision†[51], as â€Å"German historians and the population in general began to view the past more reverently†[52]. The political complexities of the Bismarckian era influenced and resulted in a change of interpretations of Bismarck Bismarck’s Germany, as moves to the more political right occurred, and thus a return to a more approving view of Bismarck was undertaken. Through one of the most revered and respected historians on Bismarck, Otto Pflanze’s trilogy Bismarck and the Development of Germany (1963, but reprinted and reassessed in 1990), significant in grounds have been made to the overall historical value of the Bismarckian era. Bismarck’s assessment was, as argued by Kraehe, â€Å"taking into particular account the work of Helmut Bohme†[53], whom Pflanze critiques, â€Å"Bohme’s account of the relationship between economic and political forces in domestic politics during the period of unification also appears overstated†. 54] Pflanze argues against the typical liberal-nationalist interpretation arguing â€Å"the primacy of political and individual action†,[55] continuing against the nationalist sentiment of early German historians in arguing that â€Å"the war of 1866 was neither inevitable nor necessary†. [56] Pflanze significantly impacted upon historiography, contrasting the Fischer appro ach to German and Bismarckian history, although still remaining critical of Bismarck and Bismarck’s Germany. Kraehe argues that to Pflanze, â€Å"Bismarck was always larger than life†[57], due to the immense coverage and detail provided in Pflanze’s trilogy. Pflanze uses differing concepts of investigation to outline the Bismarckian era, as outlined by Waller, â€Å"Pflanze uses psychological insight and works with Freudian concepts†. [58] Pflanze in essence portrays a structuralist interpretation of Bismarck’s unification and impact, arguing that Bismarck took taking advantage of certain opportunities, â€Å"Pflanze stresses Bismarck’s flexibility, his concern to keep options open†[59]. Pflanze’s changed views of Bismarckian historiography can be seen due to his â€Å"return to the sources†[60], and thus uses a â€Å"psychological history†[61], hich as Urbach concludes, enabled him to â€Å"analyse in detail†. [62] Pflanze openly argued for the structuralist interpretation of Bismarck, within the nature of Bismarck’s opportunism and manipulation of events, rather than intentionally staging events. [63] The 1980s biography Bismarck: The White Revolutionary, by Lothar Gall sig nificantly impacted upon the historiography of Bismarck and Bismarck’s Germany, as Waller describes, â€Å"It is probably the most searching biography we have†. 64] Lothar Gall portrays Bismarck as a revolutionary, however conservative in nature. As highlighted by Bruce Waller, Gall wrote Bismarck: The White Revolutionary â€Å"to counter the school of historians whom the individual matters little†, and thus like Pflanze investigated the implications of an individual upon a society. Whilst, â€Å"unlike Pflanze, Gall did not uncover new sources† he utilised the analysis of existing Bismarckian sources to investigate the true impact of Bismarck upon 19th Century Germany. 65] Whilst Waller points out that â€Å"most historians, but not the majority of students, have now consigned the view of Bismarck as a reactionary to history’s dust bin†, Gall’s major investigation was to highlight the reactionary nature of Bismarck’s role as c hancellor. [66] Gall’s 1980 biography was aiming to â€Å"describe the circumstances the chancellor faced and then to see the way he reacted to them†[67], and as highlighted by Urbach, â€Å"Gall wanted to show how Bismarck, when faced with developments he had not created himself, turned them to his advantage†. 68] Thus, due to Galls idealisation that Bismarck was a reactionary, he â€Å"portrayed him after 1871 as the Zauberlehrling (sorcerer’s apprentice)†[69], arguing that he had lost his magic touch, an argument that may have been â€Å"the most devastating criticism of the man yet†. [70] Thus Gall portrayed Bismarck as a chancellor that â€Å"was not the great genius who knew and guessed it all well in advance†[71], as â€Å"Gall argues that the iron chancellor conjured up powers – nationalism, liberalism, and economic modernisation – which spun out of control and that therefore what he achieved was not what he had striven for†. 72] Gall’s interpretation of Bismarck has been seen as largely critical, however still remains a significant German interpretation, countering the initial nationalist-liberal interpretations portraying Bismarck as totally in charge, whilst also countering the arguments that Bismarck’s planning was the leeway for Hitler’s ascendancy and dictatorship. In essence Gall identified Bismarck’s accomplishment as â€Å"imperfect and – to a point – unintended†. 73] As noted by Urbach, Bismarck himself hinted at his own imperfection, â€Å"one cannot possibly make history, although one can always learn from it how one should lead the political life of a great people in accordance with their development and their historical destiny†. [74] The Bismarckian historical debate was notably influenced by the writings of Ernst Engelberg, writing in the 1980s, and proposing an altered interpretation of Bismarck. Engelberg as a Marxist â€Å"interpreted the Reichsgrundung as a phase of social progress that helped the working class to develop from a national base†. 75][76] Whilst Waller argues that â€Å"Engelberg was a life-long communist and one of East Germany’s leading historians who in the past had insisted on strict Marxist history†[77], he argues that his biography of Bismarck is not fully weighted on Marxist ideology, â€Å"it additionally gives full weight to psychological and religious as well as to political and economic factors†. [78] Engelberg, like Gall, did not utilise his own research and discover new sources, as stated by Urbach, â€Å"Engelberg used much of the old research of Erich Marcks and A. O. Meyer†[79], however she continues by stating Engelberg â€Å"includes more analysis†. [80] Engelberg’s argument of Bismarck is similar, yet differing to Gall’s, as both historians â€Å"see Bismarck as someone who tried to control the current of the time and not as a creator†[81], and thus to some extent was critical of Bismarck’s power, however Engelberg also defended the power of Bismarck stating that â€Å"despite the machinations, Bismarck was far from acting like an adventurer†¦On the contrary his preparations†¦proved to be prudent†. 82][83] Waller states that Engelberg’s argument was influenced by â€Å"Prussianism†, highlighting Engelberg’s biography to be â€Å"Prussian to the extent of disparaging the attitudes and actions of other Germans, especially those who attempted to thwart Bismarck’s initiatives†. [84] Engelberg proposed a favourable interpretation of Bismarck in his 1980s biography, arguing that whilst his control was not always complete, his ability was. Engelberg critiqued the post war historiography arguing that Bismarck’s successors were â€Å"responsible for gambling away the inheritance†, and thus links made between Bismarck and the collapse of democracy were perverse. [85] The historical interpretations of Otto von Bismarck have undergone an extensive change, due to changing social and ideological contexts of historians that have assessed the chancellor and his impact upon Germany. The historical writings throughout time, from the early historians on Bismarck, such as Heinrich von Sybel, historians writing in the times of Nazism, and following the collapse of Nazism have all succeeded in assessing the personality and his impact, however were unable to emancipate themselves from their social and political contexts, and thus the interpretations of Bismarck have reflected these influences. 86] The most recent assessments of Bismarck have also significantly transformed the historiographical debate; however have successfully avoided being overly impacted upon by context, and thus present an emancipated history of Bismarck and his impact upon Germany. The flourishing debate over the Bismarckian era will result in continual changing interpretations of the statesman; however the discovery of new sources and evidence highlights the sequential move towards the objective portrayal of Otto von Bismarck and Bismarckian Germany. Word Count: 3072. [1] Urbach, Karina, (1998). Historiographical Review, Between Saviour and Villain: 100 years of Bismarck Biographies†. The Historical Journal. Printed in the United Kingdom. 1998 Cambridge University Press. Pp 1143 [2] Ibid. , p. 1143. [3] Ibid. , p. 1144. [4] Jaspers, Karl, (1960). Freiheit und Wiedervereinigung. Munich. Pp. 42 [5] Heinrich v. Treitschke. (1867 – 97) Historische und politische Aufsatze. 4 volumes. Leipzig, (1874 – 79) Zehn Jahre deutscher Kampfre: Schriften zur Tagespolitik 1865 – 1879). 2 volumes. Berlin. [6] Kohn, Hans, (1961). The mind of Germany: education of a nation. London. Pp 188 [7] Urbach, Karina, (1998). Historiographical Review, Between Saviour and Villain: 100 years of Bismarck Biographies†. The Historical Journal. Printed in the United Kingdom. 1998 Cambridge University Press. Pp 1144 [8] Wehler, Hans-Ulrich, (1976). Bismarck und der Imperialismus. Munich. Pp. 15 [9] Ibid. , p. 1144. [10] Seier, Helmut, â€Å"Heinrich v Sybel†, in Wehler, Deutsche Historiker. Pp. 144 [11] Ibid. , p. 144. [12] Urbach, Karina, (1998). â€Å"Historiographical Review, Between Saviour and Villain: 100 years of Bismarck Biographies†. The Historical Journal. Printed in the United Kingdom. 1998 Cambridge University Press. , p. 1145. 13] There were only a few critical voices emerging. For example: Johannes Ziekursch, Politische Geschichte des neuen deutschen Kaiserreiches (3 volumes. Frankfurt. 1925 – 1930); Ulrich Noack, Bismarcks Friedenspolitik (Leipzig 1928). [14] Zmarzlik. Das Bismarckbild. Pp. 19. [15] Urbach, Karina, (1998). â€Å"Historiographical Review, Between Saviour and Villain: 100 years of Bismarck Biographies†. The Historical Journal. Printed in the United Kingdom. 1998 Cambridge University Press. , p. 1148. [16] Ibid. , p. 1148. [17] Rothfels, Hans, (1924). Bismarck’s englische Bundnispolitik. Berlin. [18] Urbach, Karina, (1998). Historiographical Review, Between Saviour and Villain: 100 years of Bismarck Biographies†. The Historical Journal. Printed in the United Kingdom. 1998 Cambridge University Press. , p. 1149. [19] Ibid. , p. 1150 [20] Ibid. , p. 1150 [21] Meaning he was in favour of the Weimar Republic, which collapsed in 1933, resulting in Hitler’s ascendancy [22] Mommsen, Wilhelm, (1935). Politische Geschichte von Bismarck bis zur Gegenwart 1850 – 1933. Frankfurt. Pp. 252 [23] Urbach, Karina, (1998). â€Å"Historiographical Review, Between Saviour and Villain: 100 years of Bismarck Biographies†. The Historical Journal. Printed in the United Kingdom. 998 Cambridge University Press. , p. 1151. [24] Quoted from Gall, ed. , â€Å"Geschiechtsschreibung†, pp9 [25] Meinecke, Friedrich (1946). â€Å"Die deutsche Katastrophe: Betrachtungen und Erinnerungen†. Wiesbaden. Pp. 26. [26] Feuchtwanger, Edgar (2001) Imperial Germany 1850-1918. New York and London: Routledge [27] Hallmann, Hans (1972). â€Å"Revision des Bismarckbildes : die Diskussion der deutschen Fachhistoriker 1945-1955†. Darmstadt [28] Waller, Bruce (1998). â€Å"Bismarck: Bruce Waller looks at recent debate about modern Germany’s greatest statesman†. History Review. March 1st. p. 41. [29] Urbach, Karina (1998). Historiographical Review, Between Saviour and Villain: 100 years of Bismarck Biographies†. The Historical Journal. Printed in the United Kingdom. 1998 Cambridge University Press. Pp 1154 [30] Ibid. , p. 1154. [31] Ibid. , p. 1154. [32] Taylor interview with the Westdeutscher Reundfunk, 31 March 1965 [33] Urbach, Karina (1998). â€Å"Historiographical Review, Between Saviour and Villain: 100 years of Bismarck Biographies†. The Historical Journal. Printed in the United Kingdom. 1998 Cambridge University Press. Pp 1154 [34] Waller, Bruce (1998). â€Å"Bismarck: Bruce Waller looks at recent debate about modern Germany’s greatest statesman†. History Review. March 1st. [35] Sturmer, Michael (1971). â€Å"Bismarck in Perspective†, Central European History 4. Vermont. [36] Feuchtwanger, Edgar (2001) Imperial Germany 1850-1918. New York and London: Routledge [37] Footnotes 11 of Michael Sturmer [38] Urbach, Karina (1998). â€Å"Historiographical Review, Between Saviour and Villain: 100 years of Bismarck Biographies†. The Historical Journal. Printed in the United Kingdom. 1998 Cambridge University Press. Pp 1142 [39] Ibid. , p. 1142. [40] Quoted in Schoeps, Hans-Joachim (1964). â€Å"Unbewaltigte Geshichte: Stationen deutchen Schicksals seit 1793†. Berlin. Pp 108 [41] Urbach, Karina (1998). â€Å"Historiographical Review, Between Saviour and Villain: 100 years of Bismarck Biographies†. The Historical Journal. Printed in the United Kingdom. 1998 Cambridge University Press. Pp. 1142 [42] Sturmer, Michael (1971). â€Å"Bismarck in Perspective†, Central European History 4. Vermont. [43] Ibid. , p. 1143. [44] Waller, Bruce (1998). â€Å"Bismarck: Bruce Waller looks at recent debate about modern Germany’s greatest statesman†. History Review. March 1st. [45] Feuchtwanger, Edgar (2001) Imperial Germany 1850-1918. New York and London: Routledge [46] Waller, Bruce (1998). Bismarck: Bruce Waller looks at recent debate about modern Germany’s greatest statesman†. History Review. March 1st. p. 41. [47] Ibid. , p. 41. [48] Ibid. , p. 41. [49] Ibid. , p. 41. [50] Ibid. , p. 41. [51] Feuchtwanger, Edgar (2001) Imperial Germany 1850-1918. New York and London: Routledge [52] Waller, Bruce (1998). â€Å"Bismarckâ € . History Review March 1998 [53] Kraehe, Enno, (1990). ‘Review Article on Otto Pflanze’s Bismarck Trilogy’, Central European History, 23, 4. Emory University Press, Atlanta. , p. 369 [54] Pflanze, Otto, (1968). Another Crisis among German historians? Helmut Bohme’s Deutchlands Weg zur Grossmacht. Journal of Modern History 40. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. , p. 125. [55] Kraehe, Enno, (1990). ‘Review Article on Otto Pflanze’s Bismarck Trilogy’, Central European History, 23, 4. Emory University Press, Atlanta. , p. 369. [56] Ibid. , p. 369. [57] Ibid. , p. 369. [58] Waller, Bruce (1998). â€Å"Bismarck: Bruce Waller looks at recent debate about modern Germany’s greatest statesman†. History Review. March 1st. [59] Ibid. , p. 43. [60] Urbach, Karina (1998). â€Å"Historiographical Review, Between Saviour and Villain: 100 years of Bismarck Biographies†. The Historical Journal. Printed in the United Kingdom. 998 Cambridge University Press. Pp 1156 [61] Ibid. , p. 1156. [62] Ibid. , p. 1156. [63] Waller, Bruce (1998). â€Å"Bismarck: Bruce Waller looks at recent debate about modern Germany’s greatest statesman†. History Review. March 1st. p. 42. [64] Ibid. , p. 42. [65] Urbach, Karina (1998). â€Å"Historiographical Rev iew, Between Saviour and Villain: 100 years of Bismarck Biographies†. The Historical Journal. Printed in the United Kingdom. 1998 Cambridge University Press. Pp 1157 [66] Waller, Bruce (1998). â€Å"Bismarck: Bruce Waller looks at recent debate about modern Germany’s greatest statesman†. History Review. March 1st. p. 42. [67] Urbach, Karina (1998). â€Å"Historiographical Review, Between Saviour and Villain: 100 years of Bismarck Biographies†. The Historical Journal. Printed in the United Kingdom. 1998 Cambridge University Press. Pp 1157 [68] Ibid. , p. 1157. [69] Ibid. , p. 1157. [70] Waller, Bruce (1998). â€Å"Bismarck: Bruce Waller looks at recent debate about modern Germany’s greatest statesman†. History Review. March 1st. p. 42. [71] Urbach, Karina (1998). â€Å"Historiographical Review, Between Saviour and Villain: 100 years of Bismarck Biographies†. The Historical Journal. Printed in the United Kingdom. 998 Cambridge University Press. Pp 1157 [72] Waller, Bruce (1998). â€Å"Bismarck: Bruce Waller looks at recent debate about modern Germany’s greatest statesman†. History Review. March 1st. p. 42. [73] Ibid. , p. 42. [74] Bismarck’s statement of 1892, quoted in Pflanze. â€Å"Period of unification†. Pp. 16 [75] Urbach, K arina (1998). â€Å"Historiographical Review, Between Saviour and Villain: 100 years of Bismarck Biographies†. The Historical Journal. Printed in the United Kingdom. 1998 Cam Kingdom. 1998 Cambridge University Press. Pp 1158 [76] Quoted from Wolter, Heinz, (1983) Bismarcks Au? enpolitick, 1871-1881. East Berlin. Pp. 5 [77] Waller, Bruce (1998). â€Å"Bismarck: Bruce Waller looks at recent debate about modern Germany’s greatest statesman†. History Review. March 1st. p. 42. [78] Ibid. , p. 42. [79] Urbach, Karina (1998). â€Å"Historiographical Review, Between Saviour and Villain: 100 years of Bismarck Biographies†. The Historical Journal. Printed in the United Kingdom. 1998 Cambridge University Press. Pp 1158 [80] Ibid. , p. 1158 [81] Ibid. , p. 1158 [82] Ernst Engelberg, â€Å"Zur politischen Vorbereitung des Krieges†, in G. Seeber and K. Noack, eds. , Preu? en in der Geschichte nach 1789. (1983). East Berlin. Pp. 03 [83] Urbach, Karina (1998). â€Å"Historiographical Review, Between Saviour and Villain: 100 years of Bismarck Biographies†. The Historical Journal. Printed in the United Kingdom. 1998 Cambridge University Press. Pp 1158 [84] Waller, Bruce (1998). â€Å"Bismarck: Bruce Waller looks at recent debate about modern Germany’s gr eatest statesman†. History Review. March 1st. p. 42. [85] Urbach, Karina (1998). â€Å"Historiographical Review, Between Saviour and Villain: 100 years of Bismarck Biographies†. The Historical Journal. Printed in the United Kingdom. 1998 Cambridge University Press. Pp 1158 [86] Ibid. , p. 1160.

Marginalisation of Women essays

Marginalisation of Women essays Marginalisation is the powerlessness and exclusion experienced by a group, resulting from an inequality of control of resources and power structures (Kenny 1999 p 22) within society. Feminism argues that woman are marginalised due the patriarchal structure of society (Andrews 200 p28). In an attempt to explore my own position in society as a woman, I have chosen to research the marginalisation experienced by women in terms of gender, class and age. I have taken a sociological approach to my research, which included a literature review of sociological papers written in relation to gender, class and age, and two interviews with a woman (who for the purposes of confidentiality, will be referred to as Sally), about how being a woman has affected her life experiences. By comparing the information given by Sally, to the previous research conducted by sociologists, I will identify examples of how women are marginalised in modern society, and reflect on these findings to broaden my own und erstanding of womanhood. Social Science is an area of study which attempts to explain social phenomena, such as marginalisation, by using systematic and scientific methods to analyse the social world (Lucas 2004 p7). Sociology is a branch of Social Science, and explores the relationship between people and society (Lucas 2004 p 21). A sociological approach to research examines how the larger societal context can provide social or cultural explanations for social behaviour (Lucas 2004:21). Therefore the interviews conducted for this research focused on how the interviewees experiences affect her perception of her social status. The first interview was informal and consisted of unstructured questions relating to Sallys age, gender, class, religion, race and ethnicity. The questions asked in the second interview were more structured and related specifically to Sallys gender, class and...

Assessing Reading and Language Instruction Research Paper

Assessing Reading and Language Instruction - Research Paper Example The children will continue to read pictures and to improve their basic comprehension skills. First Grade Observation In my observation of the first grade classroom the students’ desks were setup in groups of six. The teachers’ desk was placed by the classroom door. The room was decorated with many posters and projects that the children had completed. The room had many bulletin boards that were used for classroom jobs and notes that the students could look at like the lunch menu and any important classroom events that they can pass on to their parents. Some bulletin boards were to show off their art work in the other areas of the curriculum. There was an independent reading area, a game area, a listening area for stories and music, an art area and a writing area. There was a section of the classroom that could be used to practice the skills with the other students and/or the teacher. The area for direct reading instruction was in the front of the room but to the left whe re there were many charts with the necessary skills that they are going to learn on the journey to learn reading. The teacher also led shared reading experiences here along with language experience where the students could share a story they â€Å"wrote† to the class. There was also a variety of books of all classifications that they can choose and read from. . Reading Instruction and the Curriculum Used In a first grade classroom Reading is considered a subject where students will learn to use word recognition skills and learn about consonants and vowels through Phonics and the Bottom- up theory to Reading. Reading is a subject that must build on what the children already know. These children will bring what they learned at home from watching their parents reading the newspaper, writing notes and lists, reading the mail they received like they did in preschool and Kindergarten. The teacher will need to assess these children to see what the level they will be at during the sc hool year. The children will need to start to make relationships between the pictures and words and to put these ideas together to understand a story that they are reading. The children will learn that the alphabet is the beginning of words. The first grader learns that letters and their arrangement matters in the words that they are learning and reading. First graders are still emergent readers and they will want to learn how to spell and then write the words that they are learning. The first grade classroom teacher must give plenty of opportunities to read and write words. They will learn that reading and writing is their way of communication. They will learn about the concepts of print and that the print represents the spoken words, they have boundaries, and are read from left to right. (Gunning, 2005) Reading can be taught in the classroom by using direct instruction and by using learning centers that were around the classroom. They will also use learning centers for Art, Music and even Computer education. The children can practice their reading and writing using their Dolch Vocabulary List and continue to practice even more sight words. Using these words the children can read and write notes and letters and drawing pictures. Reading is for exploration. â€Å"When the parents and/or the teacher read to the children they learn and develop vocabulary, expand their experiental background and makes them aware of the language of books and introduces them to basic concepts of print

CRIME AND SOCIAL HISTORY Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

CRIME AND SOCIAL HISTORY - Essay Example Since vigilantism has its focus on the control of crime and other social standards, its manifestation is likely to occur in atmospheres rife with crime problems and social inequities (Dumsday 2009, p. 50). When the public watches as their government fails to sufficiently uphold the values and norms it was designed to protect, they are likely to engage in acts of vigilantism (Dumsday 2009, p. 50). The vigilante group form and function because they understand that some established rules are threatened or could possibly be threatened and transgressed (Dumsday 2009, p. 55). Vigilantism also surfaces after a period of organization, rather than by spontaneous eruption (Dumsday 2009, p. 50). South African vigilantism reflects these descriptions. As Buur (2006) describes, South African vigilantism arose in response to the failure of formal law (p. 735). Paradoxically, the one element the vigilantism was primarily responding to was crime (Buur 2006, p. 736). The public’s view of the law enforcement capabilities of their government was very poor, and so they lacked confidence in the accepted and institutionalized norms. In South Africa, a long history of vigilantism exists, including the formation there of a group of vigilantes that rose up to fight a group of hijackers that wore police uniforms in order to more effectively accomplish their goals (Buur 2006, p. 741). The Irish Republican Army (IRA) organized itself to carry out vigilantism in response to British occupation of Northern Ireland (Pruitt 2007, p. 1521). The people resented British presence there for many years, but didn’t organize vigilantism until 1968, after four decades of tension had built (Pruitt 2007, p. 1521). The people of Ireland who shared this common goal of eliminating British rule and reuniting Northern Ireland with the rest of the country organized at nonviolent demonstrations at that time (Pruitt 2007, p. 1521). When the police responded violently to the demonstrations, chaos ensued

Physical And Chemical Properties Of Bamboo Environmental Sciences Essay

Physical And Chemical Properties Of Bamboo Environmental Sciences Essay Chapter 1 has been drafted in a manner that it is to draw the context of this dissertation. It defines the locality, and has an insight into the North East Indian Bamboo industry. It attempts to justify the use of bamboo as a primary construction material in the area, due to its abundant availability. It tries to highlight the faults in the current and traditional methods prevalent in the region which are a hindrance to bamboo being more often used for construction. The dissertation research looks into gathering substantial proofs to support the hypothesis which comes after understanding the problems of the area. 1.1: Bamboo Distribution 1.1.1 World Wide Distribution Bamboo is a plant belonging to the true grass family Poaceae, subfamily Bambusoideae, tribe Bambuseae. In bamboo, the internodal regions of the stem are hollow and the vascular bundles in the cross section are scattered throughout the stem instead of in a cylindrical arrangement. Bamboo is a native to five continents around the world : Asia, Africa, South America, North America and Australia. It is found at all elevations from the coast of the Philippines up to 15,000 feet above sea level in the eastern Andes. Bamboo grows in the tropical, subtropical and temperate regions of all continents except Europe, geographically divided into 3 zones: the Asia- Pacific zone(around 700 species), the America zone (around 400 species) and the African zone (around 50 species). There are totally 70 genera and 1200 species of bamboo all over the world that have been recorded, with some more in undeveloped regions to be discovered and identified. Over 2.5 billion people worldwide use or trade in bamboo worth 4.5 billion US Dollar every year (INBAR 1999). 1.1.2 South East Asia Bamboo is found in abundance in South East Asia, the tropical scenario, temperature and soil conditions in the area widely promotes the growth of bamboo in the area. China is known as the Kingdom of Bamboo, with around 500 bamboo species native here, naturally distributed in 16 provinces and 1 municipal city, among which Yunnan takes up 220 species due to its diversified climate and geographical characteristics. Due to its abundance in availability, from the starting of time bamboo as such has been a part of all South East Asian traditions. Bamboo is an inseparable part of south east Asian culture, medicine , music, construction and food. In construction, bamboo provides pillars, floors, walls, doors, window frames, rafters, room separators, ceilings and roofs. The meeting houses of some New Guinea villages are 20 m tall and more than 40 m long, with huge bamboo poles set deep into the ground and bent over in the shape of Gothic arches to carry the thickly thatched roof, creating some of the boldest structures built with minimal equipment and technology. Japanese houses are far more sophisticated, but are still typically built of wood, paper and bamboo. Bamboo is used to make guard houses in rice fields, roadside food shops, hot houses for growing mushrooms, smoke houses for drying tobacco or rubber, store houses for rice and other produce, and livestock sheds. Bamboo is also used to make pegs which replace nails. Bamboo scaffolding finds extensive use in Asian cities, even on very tall buildings. Bamboo is used throughout rural Asia to build bridges of many types and sizes; they can be as long as 25 m, often involvin g sophisticated technology as suspension bridges, but also with simple technology in the form of pontoon bridges (Kurz 1876). Many villagers use bamboo shingles, with the large stems split in half and laid with the convex and concave sides alternately facing upwards, with their edges overlapping. In coastal areas, roofs often are made of thatch woven from nipa palm around long slivrers of bamboo. Location Bamboo Area (10,000 hectare) Bamboo Species China 500.00 500 India 400.00 136 Burma 217.00 90 Thailand 81.00 60 Bangladesh 60.00 30 Cambodia 28.70 Vietnam 13.00 92 Japan 13.80 230 Indonesia 6.00 30 Malaysia 2.00 44 Philippines 2.00 55 Korea 0.80 13 Sri Lanka 0.20 14 In countries like China, Japan and Korea, bamboo also is a frequently used popular motive for poets and painters. Philosophers and literateurs took bamboo as a symbol for a good personality: making progress; modest; straight (Wang 2000)  ¿Ã‚ ½ there, bamboo is not only a useful material for their everyday life, but also has already been developed into a so called  ¿Ã‚ ½bamboo culture ¿Ã‚ ½ through the long time of cohabitation with people. 1.1.3 India Why North East India? India is home to about 45% of the world ¿Ã‚ ½s bamboo production. There are 125 species of bamboo in India spread across 18 genera. According to a survey by BMTPC (Building Materials and Technology Promotion Council) India produces about 13.5 Million Metric Tons of bamboo annually from 9.6 Million Hectares land area (used only for bamboo plantation). Sympodial bamboo consists of 67% of growing stock and monopodial bamboo comprises of 20% of growing stock. Out of this amount the North Eastern part of India alone has the gross share of 66% of the total production. So, it can be said that potentially this region has the widest range climate and topography suitable for growth of bamboo. Distribution of Bamboo in North East India (Area in sq km * ) S. No. State Area under Bamboos Area under Muli Bamboo Area under other Bamboo Spp. Area expected to flower Area accessible (Flowered) 1. Arunachal Pradesh 4590 100.00 2. Assam 8213 2950 1456 3. Manipur 3692 1592 400 4. Meghalaya 3100 400 2700 400 200 5. Mizoram 6646 5100 1500 5100 1200 6. Nagaland 0758 250 250 7. Tripura 2397 960 1437 2397 300 Bamboo is a vital element of Indias North Eastern region comprising the states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura. Bamboo has been a traditional material of construction that has been used in the north east region from quiet some time. In Borneo and the Naga Hills of India, large communal houses that may be 100 m long are built of bamboo. In Arunachal Pradesh, large suspension bridges have been made out of bamboo, In Assam houses made of bamboo are the typical house type in villages which stand the test of floods and earthquakes in the region. Bamboo is the material of choice when it comes to arts and craft in the region. A number of traditional musical instruments are also made from bamboo.  ¿Ã‚ ½The virtues of bamboo are not new, but the interest in it is, ¿Ã‚ ½ says Antonios Levissianos, UNIDO senior industrial development officer.  ¿Ã‚ ½Bamboo is no longer seen as a poor man ¿Ã‚ ½s timber, it is growing to be the most promising substitute for wood and there is great scope for further generating rural employment. India ¿Ã‚ ½s current demand for bamboo is an estimated 27 million tones. However, only 50 per cent of that demand can be met because of lack of facilities for value addition and transportation. ¿Ã‚ ½ 1.2: Why Bamboo? Bamboo is one of the foremost sustainable naturally available material that has been used in construction since ages. Bamboo is the traditional material of choice that has been in use in the North East region of India since time immemorial. Bamboo is enduring, versatile and renewable, and due to its vast production (13.5 million metric tonnes annually), it was also the material of choice in construction. Bamboo can replace a variety of woods that are being increasingly used for construction today, and thus help in saving forests which today are in a critical stage of deforestation. Also, bamboo converts more carbon-di-oxide, than most other plants, and hence a more eco-friendly material. The growth rate of bamboo is also three times to eucalyptus and it can be harvested four times in the same period, hence its production and availability is much more compared to wood. So, bamboo should be the material of choice in the field of construction and not only as a scaffolding option as it i s mostly used today, at least in the regions where it is readily available and in bounty. 1.2.1 Physical and chemical Properties of bamboo Physical Properties Physical properties of bamboo varies greatly from species to species, and to some extent within a species. Culms are generally long and straight and the hollow internodes make it comparatively light. The strength of bamboo varies within the species, age of culm, moisture content and portion of culm and generally increases until it reaches maturity. The tensile strength of a bamboo pole is high parallel to the grain. Bamboo however, fails in shear before it fails in tension and so modulus of rupture is used to calculate strength. Due to its weak transverse bonds between its fibres, it can be spilt easily along the length (radial or tangential) Chemical Properties The main constituents of the bamboo culm are: cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Other constituents consist of resins, tannins, waxes and inorganic salts. The composition varies based on years of growth, season, species and the part of the culm. Studies on moisture, ligno-cellulosic, starch and silica content are presented in this section. The main percentage composition of a bamboo pole are mainly:  ¿Ã‚ ½ Cellulose Fibers 40%  ¿Ã‚ ½ Parenchyma 50%  ¿Ã‚ ½ Vessels (voids) 10% Mechanical Properties The fibers contribute 60-70% of the weight of the total culm tissue. They are long and tapered at their ends. The ratio of length to width varies between 150:1 and 250:1. Fiber length has showed considerable variation within species. There is also variation in strength properties along the culm height as well. Compressive strength tends to increase with height [Espiloy 1987; Liese 1987; Sattar et al. 1990; Kabir et al. 1991]. The strength increases from the central to the outer part. There is more than 100 percent variation in strength from the inner to the outer layers [Narayanamurti and Bist 1947]. 1.2.2 Bamboo In comparison to other prevalent construction materials A comparative study of the energy required to produce a unit of a building material with a certain level of load-bearing capacity gives an idea of the sustainability of bamboo. Due to its hollowness and the fibres being in the longitudinal direction, bamboo is a very efficient material for structural design, as less material is needed than in case of traditional construction materials such as steel and concrete as massive sections can be avoided. In case of load bearing mass, due to its tubular structure bamboo behaves as a I-shaped cross-section, in each of the direction of its load, but it is less efficient than other cross sections in one or two directions. The mechanical properties, the high extent of flexibility, its exceptionally fast growth rate, comparatively lower weight and low cost make bamboo a preferable building material over other construction materials. Although, in its natural state bamboo is little efficient to be used as a construction material due to its proneness to decay and insect attack, so, bamboo needs to be treated before it can be used as an extensive construction material. 1.2.3 Bamboo as a sustainable construction material Bamboo is not a tree, it is a grass, so unlike trees it does not yield timber. Bamboo ¿Ã‚ ½s environmental benefits arise largely out of its ability to grow and spread quickly  ¿Ã‚ ½ in some cases three to four feet per day  ¿Ã‚ ½ without the need for fertilizers, pesticides or much water. A bamboo grove also releases some 35 percent more oxygen into the air than a similar-sized stand of trees, because of this, planting bamboo is a great way to reduce your carbon footprint and help fight global warming, a perfect selection for going green and it matures (and can be replanted) within seven years (compared to 30-50 years for a stand of trees), helping to improve soil conditions and prevent erosion along the way. Bamboo is so fast-growing that it can yield 20 times more timber than trees on the same area. As a building material, bamboo is also ideal in that it is sturdy, and can be cut and laminated into sheets and planks, just like wood. The quality of bamboo laminate varies between manufacturers and the maturity of the plant from which it was harvested; the sturdiest products fulfill their claims of being up to three times harder than oak hardwood but others may be softer than standard hardwood. Again, the many varieties of bamboo give it the advantage of versatility. For countries who are poor and struggling to move away from polluting industries, growing bamboo has the potential to become a viable economic and environmental solution. Bamboo if used as a major construction material, addresses three major areas: ECOLOGICAL SECURITY: conservation of forests through timber substitution, alternate materials to non-biodegradable high energy consuming materials like metals and plastics SUSTAINABLE FOOD SECURITY: bamboo based agro -forestry system, maintenance of soil fertility of adjoining agricultural lands, and bamboo shoots. LIVELIHOOD SECURITY: generation of employment in planting and primary processing for manufacturing mat based composites and other market driven bamboo products. Bamboo poles can be used to make papers and clothes, and the process is environment friendly as little harmful chemicals are required to make paper and clothes out of the bamboo plant. The environmental impact of bamboo is what makes it an ideal material for construction in both interior and exterior of any building. 1.3: Bamboo Usable in Construction 1.3.1 Durability of bamboo structure Bamboo is a natural composite with remarkable growth rate, and potent physical and mechanical properties which makes it one of the most suitable replacement for wood and a major and most sought after sustainable building material in the region of its growth. But bamboo in its natural state is not a very durable material and is very prone to infestation and decay. Thus, most bamboos used for structural purposes in rural and tribal housing deteriorate in a couple of years, putting heavy pressure on the resource, owing to increased demands for frequent replacements. This adversely affects the supplies of bamboo, even in bamboo rich regions. India, with an annual production of about 3.2 million tones of bamboos, ranks second only to China in bamboo production (Pathak, 1989). Over 136 species in 30 genera occur in India (Suri and Chauhan, 1984). The two most widely distributed genera in India are Bambusa and Dendrocalamus. In South and Southeast Asia, the most economically important species for structural uses from the point of view of easy availability are Bambusa balcoa, Bambusa bambos, Bambusa blumeana, Bambusa nutans, Bambusa polymorpha, Bambusa tulda, Barnbusa vulgaris, Dendrocalarmus hamiltonii, Dendrocalarnus strictus, Melocanna barnbusoides, Gigan tochloa spp., Ochlandra travanicorica and Oxytenathera nigroeiliata. Unfortunately, like most lignocellulosic materials, bamboo has very low resistance to biological degrading agents. Several techniques to enhance its durability have, therefore, been developed. Natural Durability of Bamboo Worldwide and mainly in the South East Asian mainland where bamboo grows in abundance there are a great many traditional and chemical methods for the preservation and enhanced durability of bamboo. However, here we mainly discuss briefly the traditional method of increasing the durability of bamboo which are tested and practiced in the north east Indian region which is the main producer of bamboo in the country. Variation in durability has also been observed along the length of the culm and the thickness of the wall. The lower portion of the culm is considered more durable, while the inner part of the wall deteriorates faster than the outer harder portion. This is probably related to the anatomical and chemical nature of the woody cells. Because of the lack of any toxic constituents, bamboos form a ready food source for a variety of organisms. The presence of considerable quantities of starch in green or dry bamboo makes it more attractive to such organisms, especially stain fungi and borer beetles. Some sap sucking insects have been reported to attack bamboo plantations as well (Chatterjee and Sebastian, 1964,1966; Singh, 1988). The most serious borers of felled bamboos are three species of Dinoderus (celluris, minutes, brevis) and Lyctus, which attack bamboo rich with starch (Casin and Mosteiro, 1970; Sandhu, 1975). They cause immense damage during drying, storage, and subsequent use. Carpenter bees and termites also attack bamboo (Beeson, 1938;Sensarma and Mathur, 1957). Bamboos are attacked by marine organisms as well (Anon, 1945). It is reported that bamboos harvested during summer are more rapidly destroyed than those felled in the rainy season (Liese, 1980). Culms of bamboo plants which have flowered are more resistant to beetles because of starch depletion. Hence, the first point of consideration for the durability of bamboo is harvesting. Harvesting of Bamboo In bamboos, soluble sugars are the principal nutrients for parasites. Thus, bamboos with depleted carbohydrates become reasonably resistant to the attack of borers and staining fungi. Methods adopted for lowering the sugar content at the time of harvesting of bamboos are: (i) Life Cycle: Felling of bamboo at maturity when sugar content is low:- Sugar content in bamboos varies with age. It is lowest during the first year but felling of one-year-old bamboo is not desirable because of very low strength and yield. Normally, bamboo matures at 3-4 years (ii) Annual Cycle: Felling of bamboo during low-sugar content season:-Sugar content in almost all plants varies with seasons. In India, for example, it is higher in spring than in winter (Joseph, 1958). Therefore, it is advisable to harvest bamboos between August and December, which is basically the dry season before monsoons. (iii) Daily Cycle: Felling of bamboo after sunset:- During the day time due to the availability of sunlight a lot of photosynthesis occurs in the bamboo plant and hence a lot of movement of food occurs resulting in increased starch content in most parts of the bamboo tree. But during the night mainly stored food is used and no photosynthesis happens, so it is advisable to fell the bamboo tress after sunset. Leaching of Bamboo The bamboo available after harvest is not ready yet, it still has a large amount of sap content which makes it prone to infestation and decay. Leaching is the removal of sap after harvest. The sap levels in harvested bamboo are reduced either through leaching or postharvest photosynthesis. A variety of leaching practices are used to remove the sap content, the mostly used include: 1. Cut bamboo is raised clear of the ground and leant against the rest of the clump for one to two weeks until leaves turn yellow to allow full consumption of sugars by the plant. 2. A similar method is undertaken, but with the base of the culm standing in fresh water, either in a large drum or stream to leach out sap. 3. Cut culms are immersed in a running stream and weighted down for three to four weeks. 4. Water is pumped through the freshly cut culms, forcing out the sap (this method is often used in conjunction with the injection of some form of treatment). In the process of water leaching, the bamboo is dried slowly and evenly in the shade to avoid cracking in the outer skin of the bamboo, thereby reducing opportunities for pest infestation. Storage of Bamboo The bamboo after removal of the sap content is than ready to be stored in storages but certain precautions are taken to enhance the durability of bamboo, they are: 1. Bamboo is not stored in the open to avoid exposure to climatic forces such as rain and direct sunlight. 2. Bamboo is stored in a semi closed area to allow wind movement through its stacks. 3. Bamboo is stored a bit (app. 10cm) above the ground to avoid infestation from below, also an insect repellent may be sprayed on the ground. 4. Bamboo is stacked in vertical manner, and it should be noted that a minimum of 30% of the moisture in bamboo should be retained. These measures taken ensures that the bamboo is stored properly and is well protected from reagents, and ready for selection and grading. Selection/ Grading of bamboo The bamboo culms are now ready for selection and grading into various categories, which are then accordingly put to use in the construction as per the nature of demand of the work. The main characteristics of a good, durable and structurally usable bamboo culm are based on the following key points along with a idea of advisable range of values. 1. Age and Maturity : plus 5 years 2. Dimensional Characteristics : 4 6 3. Wall Thickness : 12mm 25 mm 4. Inter Nodal Distance 5. Straightness and Uniformity 1.3.2 Treatment processes of bamboo Although a great deal of care is taken in increasing the durability of bamboo right from the beginning from the process of harvesting to the selection and grading, the natural bamboo still is not good for long standing structures due to its still proneness to infestation. Hence, the bamboo is made to go through a number of treatment and preventive processes. Natural means- 1. water seasoning 3-4 months 2. smoke seasoning 3. heat seasoning Chemical means- 1. internodal injection treatment- petro based chemical, creosote oil+diesel (1:1) 25-40ml 2. borax boric solution- 1:1 in hot 25L of water 50g of each 3. vacuum pressure treatment 4. brochh-vsie treatment gravity based 1.4: Current State of Problems 1.4.1 A Glance at the drawbacks of traditional bamboo construction in North East India Since time immemorial bamboo has been an integral part of the traditional practices of the people of north east India. The north eastern parts of India, bamboo is in abundance due to its topography and geographical conditions, and bamboo has found its use in many variations and utilities, ranging from bamboo as a construction material, a key element of interiors such as furnitures and home decor, to daily household usable commodities. Bamboo shoot is a delicacy exquisite to the North Eastern region of India. Although available in bounty in nature, the state of bamboo usable for construction purposes is in a state of bother in the region. The traditional methods of bamboo usage and construction can be said to be inadequate to meet long term goals of sustainable and long lasting and permanent structures.  ¿Ã‚ ½The virtues of bamboo are not new, but the interest in it is, ¿Ã‚ ½ says Antonios Levissianos, UNIDO senior industrial development officer.  ¿Ã‚ ½Bamboo is no longer seen as a poor man ¿Ã‚ ½s timber, it is growing to be the most promising substitute for wood and there is great scope for further generating rural employment. India ¿Ã‚ ½s current demand for bamboo is an estimated 27 million tones. However, only 50 per cent of that demand can be met because of lack of facilities for value addition and transportation. ¿Ã‚ ½ According to Antonios if proper infrastructure is provided for transportation, either by way of roads or canals, bamboo can be a material with great potent ial to be used in the construction industry in the NE region of India. If we are to highlight a few key points as to what leads to the failure of the current traditional system of bamboo usage in the construction industry we can consider the following key points: (i) Bamboo not Treated: In the current practice system of bamboo usage in the region the bamboo after the process of harvesting as discussed in section A3 : 3.1, it undergoes little treatment procedures, which makes it prone to infestation and attack from natural reagents. (ii) Lack of Proper Joinery: The current practice involves crude joinery mechanisms to join two bamboo structural members, which are derogatory and have inverse effects on the life of bamboo and also tend to cause in rupture of the bamboo members. (iii) Lack of Safety measures from Climatic Forces: This is one of the major cause of failure of current bamboo structures, as the natural climatic forces have an adverse effect on the untreated bamboo. The lack of solid and stable joinery is exploited by the wind in the region whereas, the rain and floods play an even dangerous effect to the untreated bamboo. 1.4.2 Identifying the Possible problems in constructing with bamboo The state of bamboo in the North Eastern region of India can be easily be improved if we identify and improve upon the key points or the distinct nodes of the problems, that are associated with the traditional method of construction of bamboo. After a look into our study so far, if we are to list some key issues which needs to be addressed upon as the main nodes to look at for making bamboo a suitable and efficient material of construction we can list out the following points. 1. Appropriate technology for bamboo treatment and working tools The region does not have a proper treatment facility for the treatment of harvested bamboo which will protect it from insect and reagent attacks as well as slow its decay process due to effect from natural forces. Moreover, no specialized tools are available for working with bamboo and most of the work is done with tools developed for wood/timber as such it results in rupture and wear and tear of bamboo elements which can be avoided by proper use of tools developed especially for bamboo. 2. Design of proper joinery system- conducive effective production to bamboo material The current joinery type used for bamboo based construction is either by tying by ropes or bolting with iron bolts as shown in Fig. 11, the rope tied bamboo joints tend to fail the test of time and climatic forces, whereas the bolting results in unwanted cracks and rupture of the structural bamboo elements. 3. Skilled labour- workmanship Although bamboo has been the choice of material since long in the region , a relatively low quantity of labours can come up to the level of being called a primary bamboo construction workman. This is a major setback as to when an architect or builder decides on constructing with bamboo as there is serious lack of skilled labour for bamboo construction. So, the region demands a specialized center for training persons in bamboo construction who can in turn come up to be the skilled bamboo works man for the region. This can inturn help to generate employment for the local public, who after being trained can work as bamboo craftsman in the industry. E.g. Hong Kong Bamboo Scaffolding Factory 4. Change in Social mindset A major setback related to bamboo construction in the region is the social mindset of the people who are of the idea that bamboo is a poor mans timer, and fail to understand the potential and beauty of the bamboo material. A through policy for propagate to mass with appropriate technology has to be introduced in a systematic manner which is competitive, durable, aesthetically pleasing and eco friendly. CHAPTER 2: HYPOTHESIS 2.1 STATEMENT Bamboo is a natural material, it is non-uniform, and degradable in its natural state. However it is one of the most sustainable building materials used till date. However, the key area of concern and the biggest obstacle in the bamboo being used more often in construction is, due to its dimensional constraints the joinery system for the structural elements of a bamboo construction becomes extremely difficult and non-durable. However, custom made joints, which are flexible and also adjustable can help solve the problem as it can convert a non-standardize construction material to a standardize material. Moreover, factory setups for availing the construction industry with well treated, and standardize bamboo elements as well as products can help a great deal in making bamboo the material of choice for construction in the region.  ¿Ã‚ ½Customization of the joinery system of bamboo elements along with better industrial setup for bamboo and bamboo based products will make bamboo a primary construction material. ¿Ã‚ ½ 2.2: METHODOLOGY Literature comprising books, research notes, websites, published papers, news articles and e-mail correspondence were means of research undertaken. the author also visited Assam from 13/05/2012 to 10/06/2012 for observations and discussions with professionals. There were site visits conducted during the period. The understanding developed was in the form of why the traditional method of bamboo construction is inadequate and what are the major problems which limit bamboo usage as the primary construction material. These were then explained in terms of case studies with examples from India and rest of the world. The case studies and the problems are then evaluated to reach a conclusion which hint at possible solution to make bamboo a standard and primary construction material Chapter 3: CASE STUDIES Bamboo itself has a lot of advantages using it for building houses, bridges . It is a cheap, fast growing material with excellent statistics according to the mechanical properties. However, although it is abundantly available in North East India there are some major problems related to bamboo based construction in the region which has been discussed in clause 1.4.2 of chapter 1 of this report. There may be a lot of solutions possible for the above mentioned problems, which are a hurdle to the establishment of the hypothesis statement. In order to throw some light on as to how these problems can be looked at and approached, the following case studies are picked from India and abroad. 3.1 : Case Studies Addressing to Standardization of Bamboo Material Standardization of the bamboo material is a very important aspect towards establishing bamboo as a primary construction material. Bamboo is a natural material, and is non uniform and degradable in nature. Moreover, in the current industry setup there are no specific tools to be worked on bamboo, this as a result makes bamboo a vulnerable material of construction in the region. But, if the bamboo material is somehow standardize, be it whole bamboo or split bamboo, and specific tools are applied for its processing than it is possible to use bamboo and bamboo based products in a way we now use brick and concrete. 3.1.1 : BMTPC Initiative The BMTPC (Building Materials and Technology Promotion Council) of the Ministry of Housing Urban Poverty Alleviation Government of India is looking forward to promote the increased use of Bamboo throughout the country. According to the BMTPC, the strength of bamboo culms, their straightness and lightness combined with hardeners and range and size of hollowers, with good physical and mechanical properties, low shrinkage and average density, it is well suited to replace wood in several applications. The BMTPC propagates the preservation of bamboo through the IS9096:2006, Code of Practice for preservation of bamboo for structural purpose. It covers the type of preservation, the treatment procedure for structural purposes like posts, scaffolding, walls, trusses etc. For the process of standarization the BMTPC has